[Main page for Ada as a Second Language]
Preface
Chapter 1. An Introduction to Ada
1.1 The Text of an Ada Program
1.2 Notation for Ada Syntax
1.3 An Overview of Ada
1.3.1 Compilation Units
1.3.2 Subprograms and Main Programs
1.3.3 Statements
1.3.4 A Closer Look at Subprograms
1.3.5 Defining New Types
1.3.6 Extending the Meanings of Operators
1.3.7 Packages
1.3.8 Children of Packages
1.3.9 Private Types
1.3.10 Object-Oriented Programming
1.3.11 Handling Unexpected Situations
1.3.12 Generic Program Units
1.3.13 Concurrent Computations
1.3.14 Low-Level Interfaces
1.4 Differences in Ada 83
1.5 Summary
Chapter 2. Elementary Ada Programming
2.1 The Structure of a Simple Program
2.2 Object Declarations
2.3 Enumeration Type Declarations
2.3.1 Manipulation of Enumeration Types
2.3.2 Predefined Enumeration Types
2.4 Statements
2.4.1 The Assignment Statement
2.4.2 The Procedure Call Statement, Input, and Output
2.4.2.1 Procedure Call Statements
2.4.2.2 Input and Output
2.4.3 Conditional Statements
2.4.3.1 The if Statement
2.4.3.2 The case Statement
2.4.4 The null Statement
2.4.5 The loop Statement
2.4.5.1 The while Loop
2.4.5.2 The for Loop
2.4.5.3 The Basic Loop
2.4.6 The exit Statement
2.4.7 The raise Statement
2.4.8 The goto Statement
2.4.9 The return Statement
2.4.10 The delay Statement
2.4.11 Block Statements
2.5 Using Separately Compiled Facilities
2.5.1 Context Clauses
2.5.2 Using Generic Templates
2.6 Predefined Facilities
2.6.1 Command-Line Parameters and Return Codes
2.6.2 Time and Date
2.6.3 Mathematical Functions
2.6.3.1 Roots, Logarithms, and Exponents
2.6.3.2 Trigonometric Functions
2.6.3.3 Hyperbolic Functions
2.6.4 Random Values
2.7 Differences in Ada 83
2.8 Summary
Chapter 3. Type Declarations
3.1 Introduction to Programmer-Defined Types
3.1.1 Abstract Data Types
3.1.2 Kinds of Data Types
3.1.2.1 Enumeration Types
3.1.2.2 Integer Types
3.1.2.3 Floating-Point Types
3.1.2.4 Fixed-Point Types
3.1.2.5 Array Types
3.1.2.6 Record Types
3.1.2.7 Tagged Types
3.1.2.8 Access Types
3.1.2.9 Task Types
3.1.2.10 Protected Types
3.1.2.11 Private Types
3.2 The Form of a Type Declaration
3.3 Integer Type Declarations
3.3.1 Signed Integer Types
3.3.2 Modular Integer Types
3.4 Discrete Types
3.5 Floating-Point Type Declarations
3.6 Fixed-Point Type Declarations
3.6.1 Ordinary Fixed-Point Type Declarations
3.6.2 Decimal Fixed-Point Type Declarations
3.7 Named Numbers and Universal Expressions
3.8 Array Type Declarations
3.8.1 Constrained Array Types
3.8.2 Unconstrained Array Types
3.8.3 Attributes of Arrays and Array Types
3.9 Record Type Declarations
3.10 Complex Numbers
3.11 More About Enumeration Type Declarations
3.12 Evaluation of Expressions in Declarations
3.13 "One-of-a-Kind" Arrays
3.14 Differences in Ada 83
3.15 Summary
Chapter 4. Subtypes Versus Distinct Types
4.1 Type Restrictions on the Use of Data
4.2 Subtypes
4.2.1 Subtype Declarations
4.2.2 Compatibility Between Subtype Names and Constraints
4.2.2.1 Range Constraints
4.2.2.2 Digits Constraints
4.2.2.3 Index Constraints
4.2.2.4 Accuracy Constraints
4.2.2.5 Summary
4.2.3 Subtypes of Array Indices
4.2.4 Subtypes of Array and Record Components
4.2.5 Predefined Subtypes
4.3 Differences Between Types and Subtypes
4.4 Attributes of Subtypes
4.5 Derived Types
4.6 Base Subtypes
4.7 Differences in Ada 83
4.8 Summary
Chapter 5. String Manipulation
5.1 Fixed-Length, Bounded-Length, and Unbounded-Length String Types
5.2 Constructing String Values
5.3 Dealing with Bounded-Length Strings That Are Too Long
5.4 Moving, Truncating, and Padding Fixed-Length Strings
5.5 Extracting and Replacing Individual Characters
5.6 Extracting, Inserting, Deleting, and Replacing Substrings
5.7 Producing Strings of a Particular Width
5.8 Sets of Characters and Character Translation
5.9 Translating, Searching, and Decomposing Strings
5.10 Comparing Strings
5.11 Picture-Directed Editing
5.11.1 Internal Representations of Pictures
5.11.2 Generation of Edited Output
5.11.3 Localization
5.11.4 Picture Strings
5.11.4.1 Digits and Fill Characters
5.11.4.2 Zeroes, Slashes, and Group Separators
5.11.4.3 Radix Marks (Decimal Points)
5.11.4.4 Currency Symbols
5.11.4.5 Distinguishing Negative Values
5.11.4.6 Replication Factors
5.11.4.7 Special Cases
5.11.5 Blank-When-Zero Pictures
5.11.6 Determining Properties of a Picture
5.11.7 Exceptions in Generating and Using Pictures
5.12 Manipulating Strings of Wide Characters
5.13 Differences in Ada 83
5.14 Summary
Chapter 6. Expressions
6.1 Elementary Expressions
6.1.1 Literals
6.1.1.1 Numeric Literals
6.1.1.2 String Literals
6.1.1.3 Enumeration Literals
6.1.2 Names
6.1.3 Qualified Expressions
6.1.4 Aggregates
6.1.4.1 Array Aggregates
6.1.4.2 Record Aggregates
6.1.5 Type Conversions
6.1.6 Allocators
6.1.7 Function Calls
6.2 Compound Expressions
6.2.1 Exponentiation
6.2.2 Absolute Value
6.2.3 Multiplication and Division
6.2.4 Remainder
6.2.5 Plus and Minus
6.2.6 Concatenation
6.2.7 Relational Operators and Membership Tests
6.2.8 Logical Operators and Short-Circuit Control Forms
6.2.8.1 Logical Operators Applied to Boolean Values
6.2.8.2 Logical Operators Applied to Vectors of Boolean Values
6.2.8.3 Short-Circuit Control Forms
6.2.8.4 Parentheses in Logical Expressions
6.2.8.5 Special Rules for Types Derived from Boolean
6.3 Static Expressions and Static Subtypes
6.4 Universal Expressions
6.5 Differences in Ada 83
6.6 Summary
Chapter 7. Subprograms
7.1 Procedure Bodies
7.2 Function Bodies
7.3 Subprogram Specifications and Declarations
7.4 Subprogram Calls
7.5 Recursive Subprograms
7.6 Overloading
7.6.1 Overloading Subprograms
7.6.2 Defining New Meanings for Operators
7.6.3 Additional Details
7.7 Nesting Subprograms
7.8 The Inline Pragma
7.9 The Process of Passing Parameters
7.10 Differences in Ada 83
7.11 Summary
Chapter 8. Access Types
8.1 Naming Objects Designated by Access Values
8.2 Aliased and Dynamically Allocated Objects
8.2.1 Aliased Objects
8.2.2 Dynamically Allocated Objects
8.3 Access-to-Object-Type Declarations
8.4 Access-to-Subprogram-Type Declarations
8.5 The Use of Access Types
8.5.1 Selecting the Object or Subprogram Playing a Certain Role
8.5.2 Shared Data
8.5.3 Reducing Copying of Data
8.5.4 Pointing to Arrays of Various Sizes
8.5.5 Table-Driven Subprogram Invocation
8.5.6 Recursive Data Types
8.6 Subtypes of Access Types
8.7 Access Values as Subprogram Parameters
8.8 Lifetimes of Access Types and the Entities They Point To
8.9 Conversions Among Access Types
8.10 Differences in Ada 83
8.11 Summary
Chapter 9. Types with Discriminants
9.1 Records with Varying Structure
9.2 Declaring Record Types with Discriminants
9.2.1 Declaring Record Types with Variants
9.2.2 Declaring Record Types with Variable-Length Components
9.2.3 Declaring Types Whose Components Have Discriminants
9.2.4 Allowable Uses of Discriminants
9.3 Subtypes of Types with Discriminants
9.3.1 Mutable and Immutable Records
9.4 Pointing to Objects with Discriminants
9.4.1 Allocators for Records with Discriminants
9.4.2 Discriminant Constraints for Access Types
9.5 Subprogram Parameters with Discriminants
9.6 Full Form of a Discriminant Constraint
9.7 Position of Discriminants in Record Aggregates
9.8 When Expressions Are Evaluated
9.9 Differences in Ada 83
9.10 Summary
Chapter 10. Packages
10.1 Package Declarations and Package Bodies
10.2 The Syntax of Packages
10.3 The Placement and Lifetime of a Package
10.4 Children of Packages
10.5 Fractions Revisited
10.6 use Clauses
10.7 Renaming Declarations
10.8 Packages Without Bodies
10.9 Differences in Ada 83
10.10 Summary
Chapter 11. Private and Limited Types
11.1 Abstract Data Types Versus Internal Representations
11.2 Declaration of Private Types
11.3 Children of Packages With Private Parts
11.4 Deferred Constants
11.5 Programmer-Defined Equality and Inequality
11.6 Limited Types
11.7 Returning Objects by Reference
11.8 Private Types With Discriminants
11.8.1 Example: A Private Type for Varying Character Strings
11.8.2 Indefinite Private Types
11.8.3 Access Discriminants
11.9 Differences in Ada 83
11.10 Summary
Chapter 12. Classwide Programming
12.1 Object-Oriented Programming Concepts
12.1.1 Data Abstraction
12.1.2 Inheritance
12.1.3 Polymorphism
12.2 Derived Types
12.3 Type Extension
12.3.1 Conversions Among Tagged Types
12.3.2 Extension Aggregates
12.3.3 Type Extensions and Information Hiding
12.3.4 Implementing a Private Extension with an Intermediate Type
12.3.5 Type Extensions and Child Packages
12.3.6 Limited Tagged Types
12.4 Classwide Types
12.4.1 Creating Pointers to Objects of Classwide Types
12.4.2 Conversions Involving Classwide Types
12.4.3 Classwide Subprograms
12.4.4 Dispatching Operations
12.4.4.1 Controlling Dispatching
12.4.4.2 Dispatching Based on Function Results
12.4.4.3 Operations on Values with Mixed Tags
12.4.4.4 Redispatching
12.4.4.5 When to Use Classwide Subprograms and When to Use Dispatching Subprograms
12.4.4.6 Explicitly Testing for Tag Values
12.4.4.7 Private Dispatching Subprograms
12.4.5 Abstract Types and Abstract Subprograms
12.4.5.1 Inherited Functions Returning Results of a Tagged Derived Type
12.4.5.2 Abstract Subprograms of Untagged Types
12.4.6 Types Whose Operations Make Them Mutually Dependent
12.5 Automatic Initialization and Finalization
12.5.1 The Package Ada.Finalization
12.5.2 When Operations on Controlled Types Take Place
12.6 Details
12.6.1 Derived Types with Discriminants
12.6.1.1 Discriminants of Untagged Derived Types
12.6.1.2 Discriminants of Tagged Derived Types
12.6.2 Creating Pointers to Tagged-Type Formal Parameters
12.6.3 Lifetimes of Tagged Types and Their Extensions
12.6.4 Equality Operations for Types with Tagged Components
12.7 Differences in Ada 83
12.8 Summary
Chapter 13. Separate Compilation
13.1 The Compilation Environment
13.1.1 Program Libraries
13.1.2 Other Realizations of Compilation Environments
13.2 Compilation Units and Compilations
13.3 Subunits
13.4 Semantic Dependence and Order of Compilation
13.4.1 Top-Down Development and Independent Development
13.4.2 Recompilation
13.5 Elaboration of Compilation Units
13.6 Differences in Ada 83
13.7 Summary
Chapter 14. Exceptions
14.1 Handling Exceptions
14.1.1 Exceptions in Sequences of Statements
14.1.2 Exceptions Raised by Declarations
14.1.3 Exceptions Raised in Handlers
14.2 Propagation of Exceptions
14.2.1 Propagation from Block Statements
14.2.2 Propagation from Subprogram Bodies
14.2.3 Propagation from Packages
14.3 Predefined Exceptions
14.3.1 Constraint_Error
14.3.2 Program_Error
14.3.3 Storage_Error
14.3.4 Unpredictability in the Raising of Predefined Exceptions
14.4 Programmer-Defined Exceptions
14.5 Exception Occurrences
14.6 Exceptions and Finalization
14.6.1 Finalization Due to the Raising of an Exception
14.6.2 Exceptions Raised During Finalization
14.7 When Errors Are Caught
14.8 Suppressing Run-Time Checks
14.9 Differences in Ada 83
14.10 Summary
Chapter 15. Generic Units
15.1 Templates and Instances
15.2 Generic Formal Parameters
15.2.1 Generic Formal Objects
15.2.2 Generic Formal Subprograms
15.2.3 Generic Formal Types
15.2.3.1 Generic Formal Parameters for Numeric Types
15.2.3.2 Generic Formal Discrete Types
15.2.3.3 Generic Formal Array Types
15.2.3.4 Generic Formal Access Types
15.2.3.5 Generic Formal Private Types
15.2.3.6 Generic Formal Tagged Types
15.2.3.7 Generic Formal Derived Types
15.2.3.8 Generic Formal Types with Discriminants
15.2.4 Generic Formal Packages
15.3 Generic Child Units and Children of Generic Units
15.4 Defaults for Generic Parameters
15.4.1 Defaults for Generic Formal Constants
15.4.2 Defaults for Generic Formal Subprograms
15.5 Differences in Ada 83
15.6 Summary
Chapter 16. Predefined Input and Output
16.1 Basic Concepts
16.1.1 External and Internal Files
16.1.2 Textual and Internal-Form Input/Output
16.1.3 File Modes
16.2 An Overview of the Input/Output Packages
16.3 Manipulating External Files
16.3.1 Opening Files
16.3.2 Closing Files
16.3.3 Resetting Files
16.3.4 Determining the Status of Files
16.3.5 Exceptions
16.4 Textual Input and Output
16.4.1 Columns, Lines, and Pages
16.4.1.1 Columns, Lines, and Pages in Output Files
16.4.1.2 Columns, Lines, and Pages in Input Files
16.4.1.3 Control Characters in Textual Files
16.4.2 Versions of Get and Put
16.4.2.1 Get and Put for Signed Integer Types
16.4.2.2 Get and Put for Modular Integer Types
16.4.2.3 Get and Put for Floating-Point Types
16.4.2.4 Get and Put for Complex Types
16.4.2.5 Get and Put for Ordinary Fixed-Point Types
16.4.2.6 Get and Put for Decimal Fixed-Point Types
16.4.2.7 Get and Put for Enumeration Types
16.4.3 Interactive Input/Output and Buffering
16.4.4 Standard and Default Files
16.4.5 Output to and Input from Strings
16.4.6 Exceptions
16.5 Sequential Internal-Form Input/Output
16.6 Direct Internal-Form Input/Output
16.7 Streams
16.7.1 Sending Values of Particular Types to and from Streams
16.7.2 Internal-Form Files as Streams
16.7.3 Textual Files as Streams
16.7.4 External Tags
16.8 Differences in Ada 83
16.9 Summary
Chapter 17. Introduction to Tasks
17.1 Concurrency
17.2 Task Objects and Task Types
17.3 Activation and Termination of Tasks
17.4 Elementary Protected Objects
17.4.1 Race Conditions and Mutual Exclusion
17.4.2 Protected Objects and Protected Types
17.4.3 Protected Operations
17.4.4 Examples of Protected Types
17.5 Elementary Rendezvous
17.5.1 The accept Statement
17.5.1.1 Parameters of an accept Statement
17.5.1.2 The Usual Form of an accept Statement
17.5.1.3 accept Statements Without "Bodies"
17.5.1.4 Restriction on the Placement of acceptStatements
17.5.2 Example of Tasks Communicating by Rendezvous
17.6 Matching Identifiers
17.7 Differences in Ada 83
17.8 Summary
Chapter 18. Controlling Task Interaction
18.1 Advanced Forms of Rendezvous
18.1.1 Selective Acceptance of Entry Calls
18.1.1.1 Basic Selective Acceptance
18.1.1.2 Guards
18.1.1.3 The terminate Alternative
18.1.1.4 The delay Alternative
18.1.1.5 Selective Accepts with else Parts
18.1.2 Advanced Forms of Entry Calls
18.1.2.1 Timed Entry Calls
18.1.2.2 Conditional Entry Calls
18.2 Aborting the Actions of a Task
18.3 Requeuing
18.3.1 Requeuing from an Entry Body
18.3.2 Requeuing from an accept Statement
18.3.3 Requeuing and Cancellation of Entry Calls
18.4 Entry Families
18.5 Task Identification
18.6 Controlling Real-Time Behavior
18.6.1 Priorities
18.6.1.1 Priorities and Processor Allocation
18.6.1.2 Queuing Order and Selecting Among Entry Calls
18.6.1.3 Determining Priorities
18.6.1.4 Avoiding Priority Inversion
18.6.1.5 Task-Dispatching Policy
18.6.2 Accurate Time Measurement
18.6.3 Using a Restricted Set of Tasking Features
18.7 Potentially Blocking Operations
18.8 Shared Variables
18.8.1 Synchronized Use of Shared Variables
18.8.2 Unsynchronized Use of Shared Variables
18.8.3 Shared Variables in Package Bodies
18.9 Tasks and Exceptions
18.9.1 Exceptions in Task Bodies
18.9.2 Exceptions During Task Interaction
18.10 Tasks and Finalization
18.11 Determining the State of a Task
18.12 Differences in Ada 83
18.12.1 Using Passive Tasks in Place of Protected Objects
18.12.2 Using Successive Entry Calls in Place of Requeuing
18.12.3 Simulating Protected Actions with Passive Tasks
18.13 Summary
Chapter 19. Low-Level and Multilingual Programming
19.1 The Package System
19.1.1 Alternative Run-Time Configurations
19.1.2 Numeric Capabilities
19.2 Manipulating Raw Storage and Addresses
19.3 Interpreting Bits as Representing More Than One Type
19.4 Ascertaining and Controlling How Types are Represented
19.4.1 The Representation of an Enumeration Type
19.4.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic
19.4.2.1 Fixed-Point Arithmetic
19.4.3 The Size of Objects
19.4.4 The Positions of Record Components
19.4.5 Multiple Representations for the Same Data
19.4.6 Freezing the Representation of a Type
19.5 Storage Management
19.5.1 Programmer-Defined Allocation and Deallocation
19.5.2 Controlling the Storage Allotted to Tasks
19.6 Interrupt Handling
19.6.1 Interrupt-Handling Protected Procedures
19.6.2 Other Kinds of Interrupt Handlers
19.7 Using Ada Together With Another Language
19.7.1 Conventions, Importing, and Exporting
19.7.2 Package Interfaces
19.7.2.1 Interfaces with C
19.7.2.2 Interfaces with C++
19.7.2.3 Interfaces with COBOL
19.7.2.4 Interfaces with Fortran
19.7.3 Generating Specific Machine Instructions
19.8 Differences in Ada 83
19.9 Summary
Chapter 20. Distributed Programs
20.1 Models of a Distributed System
20.2 Interfaces Among Partitions
20.2.1 Passive Partitions
20.2.2 Remote Subprogram Calls and Their Interfaces
20.2.2.1 Remote-Types and Remote-Call-Interface Library Units
20.2.2.2 Remote Subprogram Calls
20.2.2.3 Example of a Client-Server System
20.2.2.4 Dynamically Bound Remote Subprogram Calls
20.3 Elaboration of Active Partitions
20.4 Differences in Ada 83
20.5 Summary
Appendix A. Scope and Visibility
A.1 Scope Rules
A.2 Visibility Rules
A.2.1 Nesting, Hiding, and Overriding
A.2.2 Direct Visibility and Contextual Visibility
A.2.3 The Effect of use Clauses
A.3 The Package Standard
Appendix B. Accuracy of Fixed-Point and Floating-Point Arithmetic
B.1 Floating-Point Accuracy Rules in Strict Mode
B.2 Fixed-Point Accuracy Rules in Strict Mode
B.3 Precision of Static and Universal Expressions
Appendix C. The Specialized-Needs Annexes
C.1 The Systems Programming Annex
C.2 The Real-Time Systems Annex
C.3 The Distributed Systems Annex
C.4 The Information Systems Annex
C.5 The Numerics Annex
C.6 The Safety and Security Annex
Appendix D. Predefined Library Units and the Pragmas Applied to Them
Appendix E. The Latin-1 Character Set
Index
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